Some ethicists emphasize that ethical action provides the most good or does the least harm, or, to put it another way, produces the most significant balance of good over harm. The ethical corporate action, then, is the one that produces the greatest good and does the least harm for all who are affected-customers, employees, shareholders, the community, and the environment. For instance, “ethical warfare” balances the good achieved in ending terrorism with the harm done to all parties through death, injuries, and destruction of war. The utilitarian approach deals with consequences; it tries to increase the good done and to reduce the harm done.

Other philosophers and ethicists suggest that ethical action is one that best protects and respects the moral rights of those affected. This approach starts with the belief that all humans have dignity based on their human nature or on their ability to freely choose what they do with their lives.  Based on such dignity, they have a right to be treated as ends and not merely as means to other purposes. The list of moral rights – including the rights to make one’s own choices about what kind of life to lead, to be told the truth, not to be injured, to a degree of privacy, and so on-is widely debated. Also, it is often said that rights imply duties – in particular, the obligation to respect others’ rights.

Aristotle and other Greek philosophers have contributed the idea that all equals should be treated equally. Today we use this idea to say that ethical actions treat all human beings equally – or if unequally, then fairly based on some standard that is defensible. We pay people more based on their harder work or the greater amount that they contribute to an organization, and say that is fair. There is a debate over CEO salaries that are hundreds of times larger than the pay of others; many ask whether the huge disparity is based on a defensible standard or whether it is the result of an imbalance of power and hence is unfair.

The Greek philosophers have also contributed the notion that life in community is a good in itself and our actions should contribute to that life. This approach suggests that the interlocking relationships of society are the basis of ethical reasoning and that respect and compassion for all others-especially the vulnerable – are requirements of such reasoning. This approach also calls attention to the common conditions that are important to the welfare of everyone. This may be a system of laws, effective police and fire departments, health care, a public educational system, or even public recreational areas.

A very ancient approach to ethics is that ethical actions ought to be consistent with certain ideal virtues that provide for the full development of humanity. These virtues are dispositions and habits that enable us to act according to the highest potential of our character and on behalf of values like truth and beauty. Honesty, courage, compassion, generosity, tolerance, love, fidelity, integrity, fairness, self-control, and prudence are all examples of virtues. Virtue ethics asks of any action, “What kind of person will I become if I do this?” or “Is this action consistent with my acting at my best?”

1. Could this decision or situation be damaging to someone or to some group? Does this decision involve a choice between a good and bad alternative, or perhaps between two “goods” or between two “bads”?
2. Is this issue about more than what is legal or what is most efficient? If so, how?

1. What are the relevant facts of the case? What facts are not known? Can I learn more about the situation? Do I know enough to make a decision?
2. What individuals and groups have an important stake in the outcome? Are some concerns more important? Why?
3. What are the options for acting? Have all the relevant persons and groups been consulted? Have I identified creative options?

Evaluate the options by asking the following questions:

• Which option will produce the most good and do the least harm? (The Utilitarian Approach)
• Which option best respects the rights of all who have a stake? (The Rights Approach)
• Which option treats people equally or proportionately? (The Justice Approach)
• Which option best serves the community as a whole, not just some members? (The Common Good Approach)
• Which option leads me to act as the sort of person I want to be? (The Virtue Approach)

1. Considering all these approaches, which option best addresses the situation?
2. If I told someone I respect – or told a television audience – which option I have chosen, what would they say?

1. How can my decision be implemented with the greatest care and attention to the concerns of all stakeholders?
2. How did my decision turn out and what have I learned from this specific situation?

John is a work-study student in the campus store. They discovered that if they provide free bags of popcorn for store customers that customers will shop longer and buy more items. Part of John’s job is to pop the popcorn in the movie popcorn machine and fill the give-away bags for browsing customers. The store usually has a few bags of popped popcorn left over at closing time that they throw away. Every Tuesday night John has a meeting with his study group. He always brings them the leftover popcorn from the store that night. But his study group has grown to become quite a large group. Because the group loves the popcorn as snack and appreciates John’s contribution, John has begun popping a new batch of popcorn late in the afternoon on Tuesdays to ensure that there will be a lot of leftover popcorn to take to his larger study group. Nobody in the store notices or seems to care about the extra popcorn left over and besides it’s very cheap to make.

Please use the “Framework for Ethical Decision Making” in the previous section to identify ethical issues in John’s situation.

Sally is a student worker in the Activities Office on campus. Part of her job is to confirm schedules and food orders that are held in the student union building. Last summer Sally worked for a large pizza restaurant chain located two blocks from campus. She was an excellent employee and the manager said he might offer her a promotion next summer if things worked out. Sally is interested in a hotel and restaurant management career and is excited about the prospects of gaining management experience and training while in college. The manager said that he would give all student groups 10% off any pizzas if they purchased it from his restaurant. Although food for all campus events is supposed to go through catering services, they don’t often cite student groups who bring in their own food in the evenings. Whenever Sally sees a student group make an event reservation through the Activities Office she offers the group the 10% discount her former supervisor guarantees. This makes everyone happy. The students save money, Sally is happy to help out her former supervisor, and the restaurant is happy for increased business.

Please use the “Framework for Ethical Decision Making” in the previous section to identify ethical issues in Sally’s situation.